ABB Drives BazaarLV AC Drives , MV AC Drives , ACS 1000 , ACS 2000 , ACS 5000 , ACS 6000 , LCI Drives, Industrial Drives, Enclosed , Industrial Drives Upgraded , Industrial Drives Modules , Allen Bradley Drives BazaarPower Flex 4M , Power Flex 4 , Power Flex 40 , Power Flex 40 p , Power Flex 70 , Power Flex 700 , Power Flex 700H , Power Flex 700L , Power Flex 700S , Power Flex 755 , Power Flex 7000 , Power Flex 700 Dc , 1395 , 1397Emerson Drives BazaarCommandar SK , Unidrive SP , Affinity , Commandar SX , Mentor MP , Mentor II , Small DC Drives , Digitax ST , Epsilon EP , SLMT Servo Drive GE Drives BazaarAF-650 GP Drives , AF-600 FP Drives , AF-60 LP Micro Drives , AF-600 FP Panel , AF-300 HC 18 Pulse Drive , Medium Voltage AC , DV-300 Standard Drive , TMDC System Drive , AF-300 Mini Micro Drive , VAT 20 Mini-Micro Drive , AF-300 G11 Drive , AF-300 P11 Drive , AF-300 P11 HVAC Panel , AV-300i High Performance Drive , RS-300 Regenerative Source , Prior Generation Drives Hitachi Drives BazaarX200 Series , L100M Series , L200 Series , L300P Series , SJ200 Series , SJ300 Series , SJ700 Series Schneider Electric Drives BazaarAltivar 11 , Altivar 12 , Altivar 21 , Altivar 31 , Altivar 61 , Altivar 61 Plus , Altivar 71 , Altivar 71 Plus , Altivar 312 , Altivar 1000Siemens Drives BazaarSematic ET 200/ IO , Loher Dynavert , Micromaster , Robicon Perfacr Harmony , SimoDrive 611 , SimoVert Motion Control , SimoVert Vector Control , SINAMICS G110 , SINAMICS G120 , SINAMICS G130 , SINAMICS G150 , SINAMICS S110 , SINAMICS S120 , SINAMICS S150 , SIMOREG DC , SIMOREG DC Master , 6RA70 TMGE Drives BazaarDC Drives , Dura-Bilt 5iMV , LCI Control Modernization , TM Drive 30 , TM Drive 70 , TM Drive 80 , TM Drive 85 , TM Drive MV , TM Drive MVG , TM Drive- XL 55 , TM Drive- XL 85Toshiba Drives BazaarG9 LV , G7 LV , GX7 LV , H9 LV , H7 LV , HX7 LV , Q9 LV VT HVAC , Q7 LV VT HVAC , QX7 LV VT HVAC , FS1 LV VT HVAC , S11 LV , nC1 LV , G3+ LV , AS1 LV , W7 LV , T300MVI MV , MTX NEMA MVYaskawa Drives Bazaar F7 Drives , G7 Drives , P7 Drives , V1000 Drives , VS mini , V74X Drive , V7 Drive , V7N Drive , J7 Drive , G5HHP Drive , A1000 600V Drive , G5 Drive 600V Drive , P5 Drive 600 Volt , AC 7 Matrix Converter MORE BRAND ABB, AC Tech, Acroloop Motion Controller, Adlee power, AEG, Ambitech, AMICON Bridgeport , ACS Motion Control , Agile Systems, Alldales (UK), Allen-Bradley, Anacon Systems, Aucom (NZ), Aromat , Baldor Inverter , Bronco , Bosch, B&R, Baumuller, Beijing Dynamic, BENSHAW, Bonfiglioli, Bosch Rexroth, Boston Gear, Bridgeport Drive, BRONCO, BURTON, Bardac, BCH, Benshaw, Berge, Boston Gear, CHR, Cleveland Motion Control, Control Techniques, Cutler-Hammer, Centurion AC Servo, Challenger , Contrex DC, Contrex Fenner, Control Techniques, Crouzet, Cincinnati, Duplomatic, Danahar , Danfoss, Danfoss Graham, Delta, DriveCon, Engel (Germany), E-Tec, EATON, Elestream, Eltrol Corporation , Emerson , Emission Control , EMS , ERC , Eurothrem , Electro-Craft Servo, Emerson Inverter, Eurotherm, Fanuc, FHP Series AC , Fincor Drive , Fanuc , Fatek , FAULHABER , Fenner , Fincor , FIRING CIRCUITS , Focus Dynamics , Fuji , Franklin Electric, GE , GE Fanuc , Gettys , Gold star, GRAHAM , Hauni Power Supply , HItachi, heidenhain, HALLMAR , Heidenhain , Hitech Drive, Hypertherm, Hiril, Honeywell (UK), Hyundai, Invertek (UK), IDM , Ingersol rand , Japan servo , Jetter , Kawasaki, KCS , Kollmorgen Seidel , KB Electronics, KEB Germany, Kirlosker, Kloeckner-Moeller, Leeson, Lenze (German), LG, Lucky Goldstar, LOUIS ALLIS , LUST, Magnatek , MARKANDY , Magnetek, Magnetek HVAC, Mentor, MELLTRONICS , Melltrum DC Drive, MicroMo , Microtech Systems , Mitsubishi , Matsushita, Meidensha, Minilec, Motortronics, M-Tek , Modicon , Moeller , Moog , MORSE , Motortronics , Nanjing Suqiang Numerical Control , Nikki Denso, NRG Series, NEC , NORD , OKUMA , Omron , Opti , OSAI , Panasonic, PDL, Plasma Techniques, Polyspede, PARAMETRICS , Parker , Parker Compumotor, Peerless , Phasetronics , POWERTRON , Quix, RAM Industries , Reliance , Robicon , Rhyembus, Robicon, Samcon, Samsung, Sanch, SEW/Eurodrive, Siemens, Sinus, Square D, Spangpower, SumitomoTaian Saftronics, Sanyo Denki , Schneider , SECO , SEM , Servo Star , SEW , SIEI , Siemens , seco, Speedmaster, SOUTHCON , Sprint Electric , SQUARE D , SSD , Tamagawa , TB WOODS , TECHNOSOFT , Tajima , TRM International , T-Verter , T. B. Woods, Teco , Telemecanique , Telemotive, Toshiba, Tuncmatik, unico , US ELECTRONIC , US Drives, Vacon (Finland), Vectron , VEE-ARC , Vexta , WARNER , Weg (Brazil), WER INDUSTRIA , WESTINGHOUSE , Yaskawa, Zener (Australian)

Avariable-frequency drive (VFD)is a system for controlling the rotational speed of analternating current(AC)electric motorby controlling the frequency of the electrical power supplied to the motor.A variable frequency drive is a specific type ofadjustable-speed drive. Variable-frequency drives are also known as adjustable-frequency drives (AFD), variable-speed drives (VSD), AC drives, micro drives or inverter drives. Most AC Drives can be classified according to one of the following five broad categories

• Variable-voltage inverter (VVI) or 'six-step' drives
• Voltage-source inverter (VSI) drives
• Current-source inverter (CSI) drives
• Cyclo-converter or matrix drives
• Load commutated inverter (LCI) drives

In a basic VVI drive, the DC output of the SCR-bridge converter is smoothed via capacitor bus and series-reactor connection to supply via Darlington Pair or IGBT inverter quasi-sinusoidal, six-step voltage input to the motor. In a basic VSI drive, the DC output of the diode-bridge converter stores energy in the capacitor bus to supply stiff voltage input to the inverter. In a basic CSI drive, the DC output of the SCR-bridge converter stores energy in series-reactor connection to supply stiff current input to the inverter. A Cyclo-converter or matrix drive has no AC-to-DC converter and instead connects each output terminal to the appropriate input phase, making up the desired variable-frequency output waveforms by selective commutation from the fixed-frequency input waveforms. In a basic LCI drive, the DC output of the SCR-bridge converter stores energy via DC link inductor circuit to supply stiff quasi-sinusoidal six-step current input to a second SCR-bridge's inverter and an over-excited synchronous machine. Most packaged AC Drives are VSI-PWM type using pulse width modulation to control the motor's frequency in one of a number of operating modes including open-loop Volts-per-Hertz control, field-oriented control (FOC), closed-loop speed control with slip compensation, or direct torque control (DTC), PWM not however being needed or typically used with DTC. AC Drives are also often categorized as to torque and power characteristics in terms of the following three main motor load types

• Variable torque load type, such as in fan, pump and blower applications
• Constant torque load type, such as in conveyor and displacement pump applications
• Constant power load type, such as in machine tool and traction applications

A servo drive is a special electronic amplifier used to power electric servomechanisms. A servo drive monitors the feedbacksignal from the servomechanism and continually adjusts for deviation from expected behavior. A servo drive receives a command signal from a control system, amplifies the signal, and transmits electric current to a servo motor in order to produce motion proportional to the command signal. Typically the command signal represents a desired velocity, but can also represent a desired torque or position. A sensor attached to the servo motor reports the motor's actual status back to the servo drive. The servo drive then compares the actual motor status with the commanded motor status. It then alters the voltage frequency or pulse width to the motor so as to correct for any deviation from the commanded status.In a properly configured speed control system, the servo motor rotates at a velocity that very closely approximates the velocity signal being received by the servo drive from the control system. Several parameters, such as stiffness (also known as proportional gain), damping (also known as derivative gain), and feedback gain, can be adjusted to achieve this desired performance. The process of adjusting these parameters is called performance tuning.Although many servo motors require a drive specific to that particular motor brand or model, many drives are now available that are compatible with a wide variety of motors.Servo systems can be used in CNC machining, factory automation, and robotics, among other uses. Their main advantage over traditional DC or AC motors is the addition of motor feedback. This feedback can be used to detect unwanted motion, or to ensure the accuracy of the commanded motion. The feedback is generally provided by an encoder of some sort. Servos, in constant speed changing use, have a better life cycle than typical AC wound motors. Servo motors can also act as a brake by shunting off generated electricity from the motor itself.

Aprogrammable logic controller(PLC) orprogrammable controlleris adigital computerused forautomationofelectromechanicalprocesses, such as control of machinery on factoryassembly lines, amusement rides, orlight fixtures. PLCs are used in many industries and machines. Unlike general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and output arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to control machine operation are typically stored in battery-backed-up ornon-volatile memory. A PLC is an example of ahard real timesystem since output results must be produced in response to input conditions within a limited time, otherwise unintended operation will result. PLC ProgrammingPLC programs are typically written in a special application on a personal computer, and then downloaded by a direct-connection cable or over a network to the PLC. The program is stored in the PLC either in battery-backed-up RAM or some other non-volatile flash memory. Often, a single PLC can be programmed to replace thousands of relays. Under the IEC 61131-3 standard, PLCs can be programmed using standards-based programming languages. A graphical programming notation called Sequential Function Charts is available on certain programmable controllers. Initially most PLCs utilized Ladder Logic Diagram Programming, a model which emulated electromechanical control panel devices (such as the contact and coils of relays) which PLCs replaced. This model remains common today. IEC 61131-3 currently defines five programming languages for programmable control systems

• Function block diagram (FBD)
• Ladder diagram (LD)
• Structured text (ST; similar to the Pascal programming language)
• Instruction list (IL; similar to assembly language)
• Sequential function chart (SFC)

These techniques emphasize logical organization of operations. While the fundamental concepts of PLC programming are common to all manufacturers, differences in I/O addressing, memory organization and instruction sets mean that PLC programs are never perfectly interchangeable between different makers. Even within the same product line of a single manufacturer, different models may not be directly compatible.

A motor soft starter is a device used with AC electric motors to temporarily reduce the load and torque in the power train of the motor during start up. This reduces the mechanical stress on the motor and shaft, as well as the electrodynamics stresses on the attached power cables and electrical distribution network, extending the lifespan of the system. Motor soft starters can consist of mechanical or electrical devices, or a combination of both. Mechanical soft starters include clutches and several types of couplings using a fluid, magnetic forces, or steel shot to transmit torque, similar to other forms of torque limiter. Electrical soft starters can be any control system that reduces the torque by temporarily reducing the voltage or current input, or a device that temporarily alters how the motor is connected in the electric circuit. Electrical soft starters can use solid state devices to control the current flow and therefore the voltage applied to the motor. They can be connected in series with the line voltage applied to the motor, or can be connected inside the delta () loop of a delta-connected motor, controlling the voltage applied to each winding. Solid state soft starters can control one or more phases of the voltage applied to the induction motor with the best results achieved by three-phase control. Typically, the voltage is controlled by reverse-parallel-connected silicon-controlled rectifiers (Thyristor), but in some circumstances with three-phase control, the control elements can be a reverse-parallel-connected SCR and diode. Another way to limit motor starting current is a series reactor. If an air core is used for the series reactor then a very efficient and reliable soft starter can be designed which is suitable for all type of 3 phase induction motor [ synchronous / asynchronous ] ranging from 25 KW 415 V to 30 MW 11 KV. Using an air core series reactor soft starter is very common practice for applications like pump, compressor, fan etc. Usually high starting torque applications do not use this method. Soft starters can be set up to the requirements of the individual application. In pump applications, a soft start can avoid pressure surges. Conveyor belt systems can be smoothly started, avoiding jerk and stress on drive components. Fans or other systems with belt drives can be started slowly to avoid belt slipping. In all systems, a soft start limits the inrush current and so improves stability of the power supply and reduces transient voltage drops that may affect other loads.

The user interface, in the industrial design field of human-machine interaction, is the space where interaction between humans and machines occurs. The goal of interaction between a human and a machine at the user interface is effective operation and control of the machine, and feedback from the machine which aids the operator in making operational decisions. Examples of this broad concept of user interfaces include the interactive aspects of computer operating systems, hand tools, heavy machinery operator controls, and process controls. The design considerations applicable when creating user interfaces are related to or involve such disciplines as ergonomics and psychology. A user interface is the system by which people (users) interact with a machine. The user interface includes hardware (physical) and software (logical) components. User interfaces exist for various systems, and provide a means of :

• Input, allowing the users to manipulate a system
• Output, allowing the system to indicate the effects of the users' manipulation

Generally, the goal of human-machine interaction engineering is to produce a user interface which makes it easy, efficient, and enjoyable to operate a machine in the way which produces the desired result. This generally means that the operator needs to provide minimal input to achieve the desired output, and also that the machine minimizes undesired outputs to the human. Ever since the increased use of personal computers and the relative decline in societal awareness of heavy machinery, the term user interface has taken on overtones of the graphical user interface, while industrial control panel and machinery control design discussions more commonly refer to human-machine interfaces. Other terms for user interface include humancomputer interface (HCI) and manmachine interface (MMI). HMI TypeDirect manipulation interface is the name of a general class of user interfaces that allow users to manipulate objects presented to them, using actions that correspond at least loosely to the physical world. Currently (as of 2009) the following types of user interface are the most common :

• Graphical user interfaces (GUI) accept input via devices such as computer keyboard and mouse and provide articulated graphical output on the computer monitor. There are at least two different principles widely used in GUI design: Object-oriented user interfaces (OOUIs) and application oriented interfaces
• Web-based user interfaces or web user interfaces (WUI) are a subclass of GUIs that accept input and provide output by generating web pages which are transmitted via the Internet and viewed by the user using a web browser program. Newer implementations utilize Java, AJAX, Adobe Flex, Microsoft .NET, or similar technologies to provide real-time control in a separate program, eliminating the need to refresh a traditional HTML based web browser. Administrative web interfaces for web-servers, servers and networked computers are often called control panels.
• Touchscreens are displays that accept input by touch of fingers or a stylus. Used in a growing amount of mobile devices and many types of point of sale, industrial processes and machines, self-service machines etc

User interfaces that are common in various fields outside desktop computing : Command line interfaces, where the user provides the input by typing a command string with the computer keyboard and the system provides output by printing text on the computer monitor. Used by programmers and system administrators, in engineering and scientific environments, and by technically advanced personal computer users.

Touch user interface are graphical user interfaces using a touchpad or touch screen display as a combined input and output device. They supplement or replace other forms of output with haptic feedback methods. Used in computerized simulators etc.

Other types of user interfaces :

• Attentive user interfaces manage the user attention deciding when to interrupt the user, the kind of warnings, and the level of detail of the messages presented to the user.
• Batch interfaces are non-interactive user interfaces, where the user specifies all the details of the batch job in advance to batch processing, and receives the output when all the processing is done. The computer does not prompt for further input after the processing has started.
• Conversational Interface Agents attempt to personify the computer interface in the form of an animated person, robot, or other character (such as Microsoft's Clippy the paperclip), and present interactions in a conversational form.
• Crossing-based interfaces are graphical user interfaces in which the primary task consists in crossing boundaries instead of pointing
• Gesture interfaces are graphical user interfaces which accept input in a form of hand gestures, or mouse gestures sketched with a computer mouse or a stylus
• Intelligent user interfaces are human-machine interfaces that aim to improve the efficiency, effectiveness, and naturalness of human-machine interaction by representing, reasoning, and acting on models of the user, domain, task, discourse, and media (e.g., graphics, natural language, gesture)
• Motion tracking interfaces monitor the user's body motions and translate them into commands, currently being developed by Apple
• Multi-screen interfaces, employ multiple displays to provide a more flexible interaction. This is often employed in computer game interaction in both the commercial arcades and more recently the handheld markets
• Noncommand user interfaces, which observe the user to infer his / her needs and intentions, without requiring that he / she formulate explicit commands
• Object-oriented user interfaces (OOUI) are based on object-oriented programming metaphors, allowing users to manipulate simulated objects and their properties
• Reflexive user interfaces where the users control and redefine the entire system via the user interface alone, for instance to change its command verbs. Typically this is only possible with very rich graphic user interfaces.
• Tangible user interfaces, which place a greater emphasis on touch and physical environment or its element
• Task-Focused Interfaces are user interfaces which address the information overload problem of the desktop metaphor by making tasks, not files, the primary unit of interaction
• Text user interfaces are user interfaces which output text, but accept other form of input in addition to or in place of typed command strings
• Voice user interfaces, which accept input and provide output by generating voice prompts. The user input is made by pressing keys or buttons, or responding verbally to the interface
• Natural-Language interfaces - Used for search engines and on webpages. User types in a question and waits for a response
• Zero-Input interfaces get inputs from a set of sensors instead of querying the user with input dialogs
• Zooming user interfaces are graphical user interfaces in which information objects are represented at different levels of scale and detail, and where the user can change the scale of the viewed area in order to show more detail

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ABB Drives BazaarLV AC Drives , MV AC Drives , ACS 1000 , ACS 2000 , ACS 5000 , ACS 6000 , LCI Drives, Industrial Drives, Enclosed , Industrial Drives Upgraded , Industrial Drives Modules , Allen Bradley Drives BazaarPower Flex 4M , Power Flex 4 , Power Flex 40 , Power Flex 40 p , Power Flex 70 , Power Flex 700 , Power Flex 700H , Power Flex 700L , Power Flex 700S , Power Flex 755 , Power Flex 7000 , Power Flex 700 Dc , 1395 , 1397Emerson Drives BazaarCommandar SK , Unidrive SP , Affinity , Commandar SX , Mentor MP , Mentor II , Small DC Drives , Digitax ST , Epsilon EP , SLMT Servo Drive GE Drives BazaarAF-650 GP Drives , AF-600 FP Drives , AF-60 LP Micro Drives , AF-600 FP Panel , AF-300 HC 18 Pulse Drive , Medium Voltage AC , DV-300 Standard Drive , TMDC System Drive , AF-300 Mini Micro Drive , VAT 20 Mini-Micro Drive , AF-300 G11 Drive , AF-300 P11 Drive , AF-300 P11 HVAC Panel , AV-300i High Performance Drive , RS-300 Regenerative Source , Prior Generation Drives Hitachi Drives BazaarX200 Series , L100M Series , L200 Series , L300P Series , SJ200 Series , SJ300 Series , SJ700 Series Schneider Electric Drives BazaarAltivar 11 , Altivar 12 , Altivar 21 , Altivar 31 , Altivar 61 , Altivar 61 Plus , Altivar 71 , Altivar 71 Plus , Altivar 312 , Altivar 1000Siemens Drives BazaarSematic ET 200/ IO , Loher Dynavert , Micromaster , Robicon Perfacr Harmony , SimoDrive 611 , SimoVert Motion Control , SimoVert Vector Control , SINAMICS G110 , SINAMICS G120 , SINAMICS G130 , SINAMICS G150 , SINAMICS S110 , SINAMICS S120 , SINAMICS S150 , SIMOREG DC , SIMOREG DC Master , 6RA70 TMGE Drives BazaarDC Drives , Dura-Bilt 5iMV , LCI Control Modernization , TM Drive 30 , TM Drive 70 , TM Drive 80 , TM Drive 85 , TM Drive MV , TM Drive MVG , TM Drive- XL 55 , TM Drive- XL 85Toshiba Drives BazaarG9 LV , G7 LV , GX7 LV , H9 LV , H7 LV , HX7 LV , Q9 LV VT HVAC , Q7 LV VT HVAC , QX7 LV VT HVAC , FS1 LV VT HVAC , S11 LV , nC1 LV , G3+ LV , AS1 LV , W7 LV , T300MVI MV , MTX NEMA MVYaskawa Drives Bazaar F7 Drives , G7 Drives , P7 Drives , V1000 Drives , VS mini , V74X Drive , V7 Drive , V7N Drive , J7 Drive , G5HHP Drive , A1000 600V Drive , G5 Drive 600V Drive , P5 Drive 600 Volt , AC 7 Matrix Converter MORE BRAND ABB, AC Tech, Acroloop Motion Controller, Adlee power, AEG, Ambitech, AMICON Bridgeport , ACS Motion Control , Agile Systems, Alldales (UK), Allen-Bradley, Anacon Systems, Aucom (NZ), Aromat , Baldor Inverter , Bronco , Bosch, B&R, Baumuller, Beijing Dynamic, BENSHAW, Bonfiglioli, Bosch Rexroth, Boston Gear, Bridgeport Drive, BRONCO, BURTON, Bardac, BCH, Benshaw, Berge, Boston Gear, CHR, Cleveland Motion Control, Control Techniques, Cutler-Hammer, Centurion AC Servo, Challenger , Contrex DC, Contrex Fenner, Control Techniques, Crouzet, Cincinnati, Duplomatic, Danahar , Danfoss, Danfoss Graham, Delta, DriveCon, Engel (Germany), E-Tec, EATON, Elestream, Eltrol Corporation , Emerson , Emission Control , EMS , ERC , Eurothrem , Electro-Craft Servo, Emerson Inverter, Eurotherm, Fanuc, FHP Series AC , Fincor Drive , Fanuc , Fatek , FAULHABER , Fenner , Fincor , FIRING CIRCUITS , Focus Dynamics , Fuji , Franklin Electric, GE , GE Fanuc , Gettys , Gold star, GRAHAM , Hauni Power Supply , HItachi, heidenhain, HALLMAR , Heidenhain , Hitech Drive, Hypertherm, Hiril, Honeywell (UK), Hyundai, Invertek (UK), IDM , Ingersol rand , Japan servo , Jetter , Kawasaki, KCS , Kollmorgen Seidel , KB Electronics, KEB Germany, Kirlosker, Kloeckner-Moeller, Leeson, Lenze (German), LG, Lucky Goldstar, LOUIS ALLIS , LUST, Magnatek , MARKANDY , Magnetek, Magnetek HVAC, Mentor, MELLTRONICS , Melltrum DC Drive, MicroMo , Microtech Systems , Mitsubishi , Matsushita, Meidensha, Minilec, Motortronics, M-Tek , Modicon , Moeller , Moog , MORSE , Motortronics , Nanjing Suqiang Numerical Control , Nikki Denso, NRG Series, NEC , NORD , OKUMA , Omron , Opti , OSAI , Panasonic, PDL, Plasma Techniques, Polyspede, PARAMETRICS , Parker , Parker Compumotor, Peerless , Phasetronics , POWERTRON , Quix, RAM Industries , Reliance , Robicon , Rhyembus, Robicon, Samcon, Samsung, Sanch, SEW/Eurodrive, Siemens, Sinus, Square D, Spangpower, SumitomoTaian Saftronics, Sanyo Denki , Schneider , SECO , SEM , Servo Star , SEW , SIEI , Siemens , seco, Speedmaster, SOUTHCON , Sprint Electric , SQUARE D , SSD , Tamagawa , TB WOODS , TECHNOSOFT , Tajima , TRM International , T-Verter , T. B. Woods, Teco , Telemecanique , Telemotive, Toshiba, Tuncmatik, unico , US ELECTRONIC , US Drives, Vacon (Finland), Vectron , VEE-ARC , Vexta , WARNER , Weg (Brazil), WER INDUSTRIA , WESTINGHOUSE , Yaskawa, Zener (Australian)

Avariable-frequency drive (VFD)is a system for controlling the rotational speed of analternating current(AC)electric motorby controlling the frequency of the electrical power supplied to the motor.A variable frequency drive is a specific type ofadjustable-speed drive. Variable-frequency drives are also known as adjustable-frequency drives (AFD), variable-speed drives (VSD), AC drives, micro drives or inverter drives. Most AC Drives can be classified according to one of the following five broad categories

• Variable-voltage inverter (VVI) or 'six-step' drives
• Voltage-source inverter (VSI) drives
• Current-source inverter (CSI) drives
• Cyclo-converter or matrix drives
• Load commutated inverter (LCI) drives

In a basic VVI drive, the DC output of the SCR-bridge converter is smoothed via capacitor bus and series-reactor connection to supply via Darlington Pair or IGBT inverter quasi-sinusoidal, six-step voltage input to the motor. In a basic VSI drive, the DC output of the diode-bridge converter stores energy in the capacitor bus to supply stiff voltage input to the inverter. In a basic CSI drive, the DC output of the SCR-bridge converter stores energy in series-reactor connection to supply stiff current input to the inverter. A Cyclo-converter or matrix drive has no AC-to-DC converter and instead connects each output terminal to the appropriate input phase, making up the desired variable-frequency output waveforms by selective commutation from the fixed-frequency input waveforms. In a basic LCI drive, the DC output of the SCR-bridge converter stores energy via DC link inductor circuit to supply stiff quasi-sinusoidal six-step current input to a second SCR-bridge's inverter and an over-excited synchronous machine. Most packaged AC Drives are VSI-PWM type using pulse width modulation to control the motor's frequency in one of a number of operating modes including open-loop Volts-per-Hertz control, field-oriented control (FOC), closed-loop speed control with slip compensation, or direct torque control (DTC), PWM not however being needed or typically used with DTC. AC Drives are also often categorized as to torque and power characteristics in terms of the following three main motor load types

• Variable torque load type, such as in fan, pump and blower applications
• Constant torque load type, such as in conveyor and displacement pump applications
• Constant power load type, such as in machine tool and traction applications

A servo drive is a special electronic amplifier used to power electric servomechanisms. A servo drive monitors the feedbacksignal from the servomechanism and continually adjusts for deviation from expected behavior. A servo drive receives a command signal from a control system, amplifies the signal, and transmits electric current to a servo motor in order to produce motion proportional to the command signal. Typically the command signal represents a desired velocity, but can also represent a desired torque or position. A sensor attached to the servo motor reports the motor's actual status back to the servo drive. The servo drive then compares the actual motor status with the commanded motor status. It then alters the voltage frequency or pulse width to the motor so as to correct for any deviation from the commanded status.In a properly configured speed control system, the servo motor rotates at a velocity that very closely approximates the velocity signal being received by the servo drive from the control system. Several parameters, such as stiffness (also known as proportional gain), damping (also known as derivative gain), and feedback gain, can be adjusted to achieve this desired performance. The process of adjusting these parameters is called performance tuning.Although many servo motors require a drive specific to that particular motor brand or model, many drives are now available that are compatible with a wide variety of motors.Servo systems can be used in CNC machining, factory automation, and robotics, among other uses. Their main advantage over traditional DC or AC motors is the addition of motor feedback. This feedback can be used to detect unwanted motion, or to ensure the accuracy of the commanded motion. The feedback is generally provided by an encoder of some sort. Servos, in constant speed changing use, have a better life cycle than typical AC wound motors. Servo motors can also act as a brake by shunting off generated electricity from the motor itself.

Aprogrammable logic controller(PLC) orprogrammable controlleris adigital computerused forautomationofelectromechanicalprocesses, such as control of machinery on factoryassembly lines, amusement rides, orlight fixtures. PLCs are used in many industries and machines. Unlike general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and output arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to control machine operation are typically stored in battery-backed-up ornon-volatile memory. A PLC is an example of ahard real timesystem since output results must be produced in response to input conditions within a limited time, otherwise unintended operation will result. PLC ProgrammingPLC programs are typically written in a special application on a personal computer, and then downloaded by a direct-connection cable or over a network to the PLC. The program is stored in the PLC either in battery-backed-up RAM or some other non-volatile flash memory. Often, a single PLC can be programmed to replace thousands of relays. Under the IEC 61131-3 standard, PLCs can be programmed using standards-based programming languages. A graphical programming notation called Sequential Function Charts is available on certain programmable controllers. Initially most PLCs utilized Ladder Logic Diagram Programming, a model which emulated electromechanical control panel devices (such as the contact and coils of relays) which PLCs replaced. This model remains common today. IEC 61131-3 currently defines five programming languages for programmable control systems

• Function block diagram (FBD)
• Ladder diagram (LD)
• Structured text (ST; similar to the Pascal programming language)
• Instruction list (IL; similar to assembly language)
• Sequential function chart (SFC)

These techniques emphasize logical organization of operations. While the fundamental concepts of PLC programming are common to all manufacturers, differences in I/O addressing, memory organization and instruction sets mean that PLC programs are never perfectly interchangeable between different makers. Even within the same product line of a single manufacturer, different models may not be directly compatible.

A motor soft starter is a device used with AC electric motors to temporarily reduce the load and torque in the power train of the motor during start up. This reduces the mechanical stress on the motor and shaft, as well as the electrodynamics stresses on the attached power cables and electrical distribution network, extending the lifespan of the system. Motor soft starters can consist of mechanical or electrical devices, or a combination of both. Mechanical soft starters include clutches and several types of couplings using a fluid, magnetic forces, or steel shot to transmit torque, similar to other forms of torque limiter. Electrical soft starters can be any control system that reduces the torque by temporarily reducing the voltage or current input, or a device that temporarily alters how the motor is connected in the electric circuit. Electrical soft starters can use solid state devices to control the current flow and therefore the voltage applied to the motor. They can be connected in series with the line voltage applied to the motor, or can be connected inside the delta () loop of a delta-connected motor, controlling the voltage applied to each winding. Solid state soft starters can control one or more phases of the voltage applied to the induction motor with the best results achieved by three-phase control. Typically, the voltage is controlled by reverse-parallel-connected silicon-controlled rectifiers (Thyristor), but in some circumstances with three-phase control, the control elements can be a reverse-parallel-connected SCR and diode. Another way to limit motor starting current is a series reactor. If an air core is used for the series reactor then a very efficient and reliable soft starter can be designed which is suitable for all type of 3 phase induction motor [ synchronous / asynchronous ] ranging from 25 KW 415 V to 30 MW 11 KV. Using an air core series reactor soft starter is very common practice for applications like pump, compressor, fan etc. Usually high starting torque applications do not use this method. Soft starters can be set up to the requirements of the individual application. In pump applications, a soft start can avoid pressure surges. Conveyor belt systems can be smoothly started, avoiding jerk and stress on drive components. Fans or other systems with belt drives can be started slowly to avoid belt slipping. In all systems, a soft start limits the inrush current and so improves stability of the power supply and reduces transient voltage drops that may affect other loads.

The user interface, in the industrial design field of human-machine interaction, is the space where interaction between humans and machines occurs. The goal of interaction between a human and a machine at the user interface is effective operation and control of the machine, and feedback from the machine which aids the operator in making operational decisions. Examples of this broad concept of user interfaces include the interactive aspects of computer operating systems, hand tools, heavy machinery operator controls, and process controls. The design considerations applicable when creating user interfaces are related to or involve such disciplines as ergonomics and psychology. A user interface is the system by which people (users) interact with a machine. The user interface includes hardware (physical) and software (logical) components. User interfaces exist for various systems, and provide a means of :

• Input, allowing the users to manipulate a system
• Output, allowing the system to indicate the effects of the users' manipulation

Generally, the goal of human-machine interaction engineering is to produce a user interface which makes it easy, efficient, and enjoyable to operate a machine in the way which produces the desired result. This generally means that the operator needs to provide minimal input to achieve the desired output, and also that the machine minimizes undesired outputs to the human. Ever since the increased use of personal computers and the relative decline in societal awareness of heavy machinery, the term user interface has taken on overtones of the graphical user interface, while industrial control panel and machinery control design discussions more commonly refer to human-machine interfaces. Other terms for user interface include humancomputer interface (HCI) and manmachine interface (MMI). HMI TypeDirect manipulation interface is the name of a general class of user interfaces that allow users to manipulate objects presented to them, using actions that correspond at least loosely to the physical world. Currently (as of 2009) the following types of user interface are the most common :

• Graphical user interfaces (GUI) accept input via devices such as computer keyboard and mouse and provide articulated graphical output on the computer monitor. There are at least two different principles widely used in GUI design: Object-oriented user interfaces (OOUIs) and application oriented interfaces
• Web-based user interfaces or web user interfaces (WUI) are a subclass of GUIs that accept input and provide output by generating web pages which are transmitted via the Internet and viewed by the user using a web browser program. Newer implementations utilize Java, AJAX, Adobe Flex, Microsoft .NET, or similar technologies to provide real-time control in a separate program, eliminating the need to refresh a traditional HTML based web browser. Administrative web interfaces for web-servers, servers and networked computers are often called control panels.
• Touchscreens are displays that accept input by touch of fingers or a stylus. Used in a growing amount of mobile devices and many types of point of sale, industrial processes and machines, self-service machines etc

User interfaces that are common in various fields outside desktop computing : Command line interfaces, where the user provides the input by typing a command string with the computer keyboard and the system provides output by printing text on the computer monitor. Used by programmers and system administrators, in engineering and scientific environments, and by technically advanced personal computer users.

Touch user interface are graphical user interfaces using a touchpad or touch screen display as a combined input and output device. They supplement or replace other forms of output with haptic feedback methods. Used in computerized simulators etc.

Other types of user interfaces :

• Attentive user interfaces manage the user attention deciding when to interrupt the user, the kind of warnings, and the level of detail of the messages presented to the user.
• Batch interfaces are non-interactive user interfaces, where the user specifies all the details of the batch job in advance to batch processing, and receives the output when all the processing is done. The computer does not prompt for further input after the processing has started.
• Conversational Interface Agents attempt to personify the computer interface in the form of an animated person, robot, or other character (such as Microsoft's Clippy the paperclip), and present interactions in a conversational form.
• Crossing-based interfaces are graphical user interfaces in which the primary task consists in crossing boundaries instead of pointing
• Gesture interfaces are graphical user interfaces which accept input in a form of hand gestures, or mouse gestures sketched with a computer mouse or a stylus
• Intelligent user interfaces are human-machine interfaces that aim to improve the efficiency, effectiveness, and naturalness of human-machine interaction by representing, reasoning, and acting on models of the user, domain, task, discourse, and media (e.g., graphics, natural language, gesture)
• Motion tracking interfaces monitor the user's body motions and translate them into commands, currently being developed by Apple
• Multi-screen interfaces, employ multiple displays to provide a more flexible interaction. This is often employed in computer game interaction in both the commercial arcades and more recently the handheld markets
• Noncommand user interfaces, which observe the user to infer his / her needs and intentions, without requiring that he / she formulate explicit commands
• Object-oriented user interfaces (OOUI) are based on object-oriented programming metaphors, allowing users to manipulate simulated objects and their properties
• Reflexive user interfaces where the users control and redefine the entire system via the user interface alone, for instance to change its command verbs. Typically this is only possible with very rich graphic user interfaces.
• Tangible user interfaces, which place a greater emphasis on touch and physical environment or its element
• Task-Focused Interfaces are user interfaces which address the information overload problem of the desktop metaphor by making tasks, not files, the primary unit of interaction
• Text user interfaces are user interfaces which output text, but accept other form of input in addition to or in place of typed command strings
• Voice user interfaces, which accept input and provide output by generating voice prompts. The user input is made by pressing keys or buttons, or responding verbally to the interface
• Natural-Language interfaces - Used for search engines and on webpages. User types in a question and waits for a response
• Zero-Input interfaces get inputs from a set of sensors instead of querying the user with input dialogs
• Zooming user interfaces are graphical user interfaces in which information objects are represented at different levels of scale and detail, and where the user can change the scale of the viewed area in order to show more detail

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